2022年5月22日 星期日

 Part 8, Advanced Civil Construction, 台科大高等土木施工學教材(2022) 

MT KAO (Blog: http://mtkaoforum31.blogspot.tw/)
(mtkaoforum31@gmail.com)


2)  Machine:


(1) Prototype, bespoke; portable, fixed.


a. Machine, prototype


People in construction industry need to know machine, plant and equipment for their manipulation, size, cost, productivity and supplies required. 


The general contractors used to own machines, in the days they're expensive relative to human cost.


When a country starts to build infrastructures, they need to move earth, lift heavy weight, paving concrete and asphalt, and confront with water or other inaccessible.


There're machines typical to do these jobs and we call them the prototypes: bulldozers, cranes, graders, trucks, mixing plants, paving machines, compactors, working boats etc. 


The works are many in fledging economies, so the machines are welcome for repeating usages in seemingly endless construction. They’re powerful to replace manpower and quick to deliver the landmark projects. 


So when machines with international brands such as Caterpillar and Komatzu appear at construction sites, they symbolize the government’s commitment to the economic growth.


b. Machine, bespoke


As countries proceed to build infrastructures projects of more sophisticated nature, the machines and the method employed may need special design and fabrication, we called the order and the makes bespoken. The usages are limited unless market is big and construction is in succeeding, but it will finish the works for that human won’t be accessible or to do. The most obvious one is tunnel boring machine of different diameters and shapes at restrained spaces. 


c. Machine, fixed type, mobilization and assembling cost


Most of machines can be transported to construction sites, either by self-driving or mounting on trailer for long distance, we call them portable, such as dump trucks, excavators, dozers, loaders, etc. For mixing plants, TBM, tower crane, or machines too big for transportation, they're divided in parts or compartments, and then hauled to the site for erection; we call them fixed type of machine.


Engineers must take into consideration the cost and time required to mobilize, install and demobilize construction machine. Sometimes in the remote area or hazardous places disembarkation and the installation of plants and equipment can be difficult and costly that the engineers have to think about the solution. The damages possibly incurred to the parts or entire plants during transportation shall be foreseen and at least insured against accidents. 


Also, people need to know the value of certain fixed plants decimated very much in single usage, and the remaining value after one project could be only the material cost after dissection.


工機具或設備主要有定型與訂製兩種,前者如挖土機、吊車或打樁機等,各有性能適應範圍,買者可依需求購置;後者如隧道鑽掘機,橋梁架設設備等,需依預定完成構造物尺寸、性質、周邊情況與操作安全性等,特別設計製造,非現貨供應。施工機具有運到工地馬上可以使用,或需在現地安裝、試車,移動與拆遷,等兩大類。工程師擬訂計畫或投標時,需考慮動、復員時間與成本;因機具租賃或外包普遍,故此部分被認為含於租金或外包單價,常被忽略。


(2) Operation, maintenance and repair.


a. Owning Cost: Depreciation, Interest, Productivity


In the days when the value of machine and spare parts far exceeded cost of people serving them: operators and crew for maintenance and repair. Only companies big enough would buy machines as main asset and source of revenue. 


For two historical reasons the machine ownership had to be overtaken by specialty companies: 1. Facing rising human cost and fastidious labor and safety laws, only companies able to concentrate effort to manage problems related to operation, maintenance and repair are in a position to handle the machines. 2. Company owning big fleet of machine wouldn’t have chances to share costs with other companies through rental arrangement.


The machine owning cost shall be calculated as buying price plus interest payment over the machine's service life. One is called flat depreciation method, use the buying price divided by estimated remaining service life; the other is weighted depreciation method, assuming the first 2 or 3 years the machine will have high productivity and place the cost depreciated certain fraction more in such 2 or 3 years. 


However, the taxation offices legally also have power to decide amount permitted for depreciation for different equipment. It affects how the owners should have decided on to charge their equipment.


Interest payment can be considered for each company outside of the machine cost calculation.


持有機具所需購置費用,其將產生利息等費用。不論機具是否使用,其即有折舊成本,依機具性質或政策考量,其可採平均與加速方式,計算折舊成本。政府稅務單位亦有其折舊年限規定。


b. Maintenance and Repair Cost


Machines need operators to move them, the owners must pay to the operators the hourly wage and overtime. And machines also need daily, or periodical maintenance; the related cost are the wages of the workers responsible for maintenance and amounts covering for consumable, lubricant and tool. 


Repair cost in general is low when machine is new, but it will be accelerated when machine's condition become less fair in later part of work life. The elements of repair cost consist of mainly two parts; one is labor, and the other will be that of spare parts. In developed economy, the repair cost shall be between 100% and 200% of the initial cost according to statistic, depending on different equipment. 


In developing countries where machine price is high compared to human cost, the wage of operator can be 4-5 times of that of manual labor and output of machines will be higher than what can be achieved in advanced economy. Because when machine is expensive, the owners don’t care to give higher payment to operators, which can be easily covered by revenues from higher machine productivity.


維修成本最重要為零件與人工。工資較貴經濟體,詳細檢查耗時耗費,零件採用整組換掉方式。開發中國家工資象隊機具成本低,給工人薪資可以較高,以要求機具產出效率。


(3) Rental and owning.


Started from 70's last century, general contractors ceased to own construction machine themselves in consideration of big investment over uncertain business opportunity, difficulties to handle labor relationship with operators, maintenance and repair workers, and judgement based on specialty knowledge over replacement or repair of major parts.


The bosses of equipment rental companies always start to acquire construction machines with blessing from big construction companies guarantee the continuity of the works. It's important in Asian countries that this kind of company were operator com maintenance workers, being able to keep equipment and trucks in good conditions with their entrepreneurship.


Furthermore, they may work with their supra contractor on quantity and rate. The arrangement is costly efficient but not assured schedule wise especially massive amount of mechanic works to proceed.


 
It is proven that the general contractors have no way to replace the small owner for construction machine maneuver involving operation/ maintenance/repair. Nowadays the rental rates can be as high as that 2 years charges may be equal to the buying price of a plant.


分工專業化結果,大公司不再持有機具,甚至大型設備。向租賃公司租用或工作外包,成為解決之道。


(4) Construction method and machine selected.


a. Selection of Work Method and Construction Machines.


Designing an efficient construction method is key to successful deliver of infrastructure works: right construction sequence, get through most critical part of work, minimize undue outside interference, and avoid hazardous incident from happening shall be considered when the plan is drawn.


Engineers may have wide range to select machines for construction method; however, it will be influenced by the market availability for machine itself and operators, for example, in Taiwan excavators are everywhere but dozers and loaders not frequently to see contrary to North America.

 

The reasons could be incidental that maybe the ones first introduce them to Taiwan prefer them and others just followed, or the operators are dexterous to maneuver the machines in congest excavation site in Taiwan.


Market size and available replacement could play a part, the use of tower crane was another example, because the maintenance and mobilization cost shared by small number become significant and mobile crane can be substitute, so the tower cranes are not so many in the island.


 
In Taiwan, selection of machine once accepted by the officials, budgeting and supervision for that particular item will be almost fixed in public works. 


Changes to another machine or method will have to be accommodated to the bureaucracy; adding another point that people and work gangs aren’t so innovative to create new construction plans. Another proof that civil contracts is local and conventional.


施工方法與設備選擇關係工程成敗,工地與工作特性應考量,市場情形與業主認知亦是關鍵。


b. Machine and Manual Labor


In countries like India, machines face strong competition from man power; Bulldozers and earth moving machine are levied with high import duty and surcharges, that men and their assistant with hoes and dustpan will have chances to outperform construction method based mainly on mechanization as cost is concerned.


When owning a machine become expensive, the efficiency will decide its survivability.


 
So, in the case of India construction market, the wages pay to the machine operators won’t be significant compare to the revenue generated by extra output brought by the operator’s better performance. Thus, the wages of operators can be 5 times of the common labors in developing economies.


經濟型態不一樣,人與機具亦有競爭;機具作業手、保養工相對於非技術工在較後進經濟中給付會較高,但對機械之生產力要求亦會較高。


c. Cost factors in Prototype and Bespoken Machines


There is situation that prototype machines will not meet construction requirement, the bespoken one will be the solution. 


But engineers need to know: 1. Lead time to design and build the plant is long; they’re not available at once like ordinary plants on the market. 2. When one part goes down, entire system will idle or fail. 3. Though people will try to re-use it for next project but the chance is slim. 4. The whole value of the bespoken plant can be high and when it scraps after one project, the depreciation allowed can hardly be claimed. 5. Turnkey contracts become popular these days; the contractors will have chances to design structure sections optimal and fit into owned bespoken equipment.


設計與建造非制式施工設備時間長,工程師應估算。施工機具系統中一部分或某單獨設備故障,整體完全無產出,故需考慮備用。變數太多,非制式施工設備於次一工程在使用機會不大。也因此非制式施工設備之殘值,承商不能考慮太多。但統包式契約投標時,承包商即可考慮將所有非制式施工設備用於工程施工。


3)  Material


(1) Local and Conventional Material shall be chosen for Construction.


a. Transportation Cost and Locally Available Material 


Material for construction is bulky and transportation cost is high, so they have to be obtained from local for maximum extent as quality and property may not differ so much from the outside world. 


Attention shall be drawn to the fact that sometimes the overwhelmed material requirement of a gigantic project may tilt the supply/demand balance drastically in an isolated area. Investment in term of time and money shall be considered before projects start to assure a quality and punctual completion. 


However, material prices can be fluctuated from time to time either in the case of limited supply, such as aggregate and sand, or as a result of global boom like steel and rebar. It can be deadly to an ignorant contractor, that the risk can only be addressed through contracts with so called escalation clause giving minimum protection for the builders.  


Because the projects are there for economic development so that the employment of local artisans and labors shall be considered as early as in the design stage. 


Engineers must think about the possibility to use traditional technique involving local people and product even to the point to edit the specification to show respect to the tradition. For example, the Baku piles were used in Southeast Asia for soil retaining and promote compaction effect in embankment, it has been used in international class projects for its convenience to install.


營建廠商需儘量考慮使用本土常使用材料,設計者自開立規範開始,建造商於購買使用即應注意及此。習慣、文化、可得,以及龐大運輸成本都是使用本土材料之有利因素。


b. Continuous Evolution for Material used in Construction


In old days, human's weight lifting capacity was limited, long distance hauling capability also prohibitively expensive and could only go through waterway. People had to use small and light material from local, like timer, brick and mortars for buildings and structures in most of the cases. 


Granite and basalt were used in part of Europe especially for churches, castles or monumental structures. Wooden structure was erected in Asia for aristocrats and land lord, but the timber size reduced as a result of deforestation. 


In general, the masses had to live in hut and dens for which they built with any material they could pick up from nearby area. 


Discovery and use of steel in civil engineering works change the world. They replace traditional construction material resulting in great cost and time saving. Steel in the form of rebar, sections and strains give buildings and structure new dimensions and spatial aesthetics. 


People still think of innovation for construction material better than steel, such as fiber glass or high strength concrete, commercially one day it would be popular as steel used today.


Mankind are smart to utilize everything from nature but sometimes it can be tragic. For instance, there’re countries like Bangladesh where hard stones and sand difficult to obtain. So, the local people extract and burn clay from alluvium into brick like material. Then women and children will use hammers to break them into sizes of and utilize them as aggregates and sand. Then they mix them with cement to obtain concrete. 


The solution risks human life because buildings and bridges sometimes collapse for the weak strength those improvised materials provided. It's wrong type of localization; poverty force people to continue the practice.


文明進步讓建材來源更加廣泛,不惟建材本身強度、品質提高,其製造及用於施工之方法與設備,乃至構造物需求標準之提高,都讓人類更有選擇。


c. Green Construction


Nowadays, carbon reduction is an issue, the material used in the projects shall be considered climate friendly, and engineers need green knowledge to incorporate construction material made from renewable, waste or need less processing.


Commercial calculation won’t be the only consideration.


減碳及綠色施工要求,亦將造成營建產業之變革。


(2). Material and Equipment incorporated into Permanent Project


a. Project More Sophisticated 


As economy advances in a country, the construction work won't be simple structural work again; many systems and equipment will be installed in addition to steel and concrete. So, procurement will be more complicated than simply clearing the composition, dimension and strength of construction material. 


When proper delivery of system and equipment, and their installation, operation and maintenance, is desired; prior check and mutual commitment shall be made with reliable makers or specialty contractors even before the contract is awarded.

 
An experienced general contractor knowing the risk implied in the contract signed with ever demanding client will seek teammates working in different field to discharge the huge responsibility for successful delivery. The cooperation may include consortium, main and sub-tier contractual relationship, or various form of partnership suitable in each case since before the tender. 



b. Nominated Subcontractor


In practice the owner may actually designate the maker of the system and equipment based on confidence and trust the brand bearers have exhibited. After award the winning contractor has to sign the sub or supply contract with the specified makers at least to overtake the partial responsibility of delivery, which always include risks begin with engineering, then making, shipment, installation, commissioning, test run and until operation. 


In other words, the signing parties has to share whatever may have happened with the owner: strike, sabotage, mistakes, bad performance, act of god, all kind of disruption that may occur.


However, during budget establishment, there will be bureaucrats, design consultant, auditors and financing people reject the idea that the contractors need overhead to handle the nominated subcontract. They consider the frontage contractor won't add substantially anything and the following up the delivery is their obligation.


The denying of invisible cost stemmed from the days the economic output mainly counted on agriculture and manufacturing (Physiocracy). The ignorance causes big problem in pushing the works forward; and a further proof that the construction works sometimes need cultural and conceptual fix.


因工程大型化,複雜化,尤其運維之數位化、自動化使永久性設備及材料不再限於傳統營建商面對之鋼筋、水泥,業主與設計者常需於施工標開始之前即要決定供應重要建材或各種子系統之廠商,與他們談好價錢與重要契約條件,於主承商得標後轉到主契約下,要求主包商負管理、協調責任


4)  Money


(1) Payment: cash, in kinds or goods (barter), deferred (BT), franchise revenue (BOT, PMI).


Men work for money, only after the contractor can get full payment the completion of the project is meaningful to him.

 

Only after the contractor can get full payment, the completion of the project is meaningful to him.

 

And because the construction contracts are with big money, public or private owners will choose forms of payment according to their financial conditions. The contractors will be paid in cash, kinds or goods (barter), deferred payment after completion and transfer to the owner (BT), or through franchise revenue (BOT, PMI).

 

It also possible that the form of payment can be mixed between the above-mentioned methods. The contractor must evaluate its own ability to accept the form of payment, for example, when he would have accepted the payment in crude oil over long period, he has to evaluate the possible oil price fluctuation and the extent and cost that he would have been protected by the futures.

 

The reliability of the owners, government or private companies must be taken into account.


契約付款最為重要,除傳統付款方式,有以物易物、遲延付款、特許權等方式。承商需注意自己能力,並了解業主信用。


(2) Standard international contracts to regulate: FIDIC, NEC3 (New Engineering Contract3), AIA(American Institute of Architects), JCT forms of Contract(Joint Contract Tribunal)...etc.


It's not enough that the contractor will get the owner's pledge to pay him. It depends on the contract conditions through which the contractors get paid. Normally we'd have type of contracts such as: FIDIC, NEC3(New Engineering Contract3, used for civil works in UK., Australia, New Zealand and Hong Kong, the language of it is simpler and the signing parties are said to be more equal), AIA(American Institute of Architects, form of contract popular in USA.), JCT forms of Contract(Joint Contract Tribunal, for architectural works in UK.)...etc.


As projects are different for each other, the contracts need to be modified to fit the situation; they will be reflected in so called Special Application (or Conditions) and leave the General Application (or Conditions) unscratched. Whatever slight difference in Special Application will result in big departure in reality so that the contractor needs to read carefully even the author of standard contract or the Owner would have claimed they're the friendliest contract terms.


According to the payment conditions, the contract can be divided in forms like the conventional Rates and Quantity, Lump Sum, Guaranteed Maximum Price, Alliance, Cost and Cost Based, etc.


契約形式甚多在台灣有政府範本、國際人士許多引用FIDIC,,英國協土木工程多採用NEC3,建築則有JCT範本,美國人則用建築學會之AIA。另依付款形式則有Rates and Quantity, Lump Sum, Guaranteed Maximum Price, Alliance, Cost and Cost Based等。


(3) Non-technical People to Control Money.


Compared to the old days now that big component of contractual money pays for intangible part of the project in the name to protect every party involved. The added value including the cost to acquire money, assure the delivery of the works, O&M of the project and even to the extent to guarantee the products or the purposed functioning of the project will be welcome by the customers. Thus, the added values are created.


But it is true that engineers are not playing the dominating roles in construction business because the invention as said is from improvement of technology, business skill, capital fluidity, that financial, legal and management people intrude and colonize uncompromisingly.


Though money is everywhere (QE?), but they get more respected. The so-called experts like to invent ideas to attract the capital, they provide guarantees, mitigations and assurance to fascinate investors. Under the trend, lots of the construction projects are controlled by hordes of non-technical people who can confuse the investors. 


For example, the government has plain financial resource for construction project and spent almost exclusively for construction related items last century. But now, big chunk of them will be paid as financial cost for BOT and/or PMI as people argue private fund is useful to create more public works for the benefit of the people.


A decent part of money will go to the so called independent third parties for their certificates, report and affidavits at non bargain-able cost (handled by the non-technical people) for the security of capital while the construction hands need to compete each other.


Engineers must realize, somehow, they’re now playing secondary role in the construction project; but because of it they could concentrate in technical matters and become a better manager than people of other disciplines invading the profession. 




面對變化層出不窮的契約形式,工程師必須承認非工程專業人員在契約與務款方面已多少取得主導權,以往只花在工程的款項必須支付財務、法律與商業人士,以保護業主為名所花的種種費用。他們必須有信心,且自覺工程成本也只有工程專業人士才能做好,才能重拾主導地位。


5) Market 


(1). Contractors of Lemming Mentality


As it's said above, there're 2,800 strong Class "A" contractors in Taiwan to apportion a small market; the threshold to go into the construction market isn't high as capital (relatively low to the contract amount) is concerned. When they get contracts, the contractors will find many sub-tier contractors more than eager to share risks and sometimes loss.

 

The running cost for a Class "A" contractor is low in Taiwan, the expense will be fee paid to the registered PE, a tiny office, plus a clerk to answer the bell. When the bosses cannot get business, pay such the low cost for "hibernation", will allow them hanging on for long.

 

The sleeping contractors will wake up when they get contracts and then to recruit managers and engineers to activate the company. Taiwanese people aren’t against shoot and off employment as most of them like to stay in the area like big city or home town.

 

So, the majority of the contractors are "entrepreneur" type. They're competitive and spiral down ward the awarding price. The practice is not possible to nurture big contractors with know-hows and experience in the market.

 

But once it is provoked by market turmoil destined to happen every few years, such as sudden sabotage of dump trucks of 1990 (resulted in soil haulage hike and aggregate short supply), or sharp escalation of steel price in 2006, the contractors wouldn’t have sufficient contingency provision will go for broke. The number culled will be significant but it will rise again if there is market re-juvenescence.

 

The process repeats again and again; the contractors go up and down riding on the changing tides. The one with bad luck can capsize, but too many of them survive. One moment, the contractors' number will be swelling like lemmings grow to incredible number in short spring time; the other moment the nature will drive some of them jumping the cliff and the rest follow subconsciously.

 

The market is still there for another cycle; but the professionals wouldn't have chance to lead the trend while public has to bear most of the cost that speculators should have to pay.


台灣營建業者,數目太多,都以中小企業心態經營,無風險概念,進出市場容易。非專業但樂意投機者能夠生存對注重品質,正科出身之工程師與工程品質是威脅。


(2) Style of Competition: Lowest Bid, Evaluated Lowest Bid, Value for Money.


The problem of construction industry in Taiwan is over competition. Lowest bid is blamed because under the bureaucratic system the budgets were considered to be right and served as bench mark for the contractors. The winning price was considered as true market cost or the officials follow them shall be subject to official chastisement.

 

Automatically, people, the budget builders or the tenderers will consider it as a bench mark for similar tenders. Vicious cycle begins and the awarded prices have to wait for another episode close to force majeure for correction; of course, it's always late.

 

Evaluated lowest bid is taken with the hope that the best contractor and their offer can be selected as the champion to win the tender; however, the selected may not be the most outstanding one, and the judges' supposed imparity is often challenged.

 

Authorities had sometimes to amend the criteria with the aim that it must be more fitful for particular tender but more susceptible to criticism. So, the evaluated lowest bid system stopped at 2007 in Taiwan, and BOT and PMI also suspended. The lowest bid tendering system prevailed for the next decade.

 

It is true that in recent years the contractors don't make money. They kept tendering and performed the contracts only to sustain the company. They couldn’t afford to pay senior engineers because of the poor overhead earned; the result is the loss of expertise.

 

There will be limit to which the contractors take the construction contracts because they can’t make profit after all. The result is tenders "aborted" or the execution in chaos. So, the evaluated lowest bid is coming back. There’s possibility and also a reasonable hope that the authority may get lessons from flaws happened in the past.

 

The criteria to select the best tenderer for the tender shall be rationalized, especially that the persons to be assigned as "judges“, shall be men of integrity.

 

Current tendering rules propping the idea for EPC will nurture bigger and more public construction companies instead of the small entrepreneurs who always cut corners of the fair competition is said to be the solution to correct the market for persistent fragmentation.

 

It could be a well wish and hind sight, but seeing the implementation of FCPA (of the US) and similar laws of various states, the big and public companies can be supervised more thoroughly in the entire process.  

 

The final goal for government spending shall be "Value for Money", in which, the project completed will worth money spent. It’s idealistic but we suppose the introduction of more liberal ideas, moderate as it may be, will bring in the progress.


競標評審,由最低標轉為最有利標,最終目標應為「物超所值」,如此市場才能進步、正常。


(3) Elements of Competition.


 market considered normal will be the one that the consumer is most important. For public works the government is single biggest buyer, he can draw the lines to select the contractors based on their apparent capability, past experience and planned execution plan for the tendered project.

 
It means the government can define a clear and objective criterion for elements such as price, technical approaches, time of completion, safety record, experience in similar works, existing work loading, managerial and technical resource in hands, records of contract disputes (with owners) …etc.
 
For international tenders, the owners usually will analyze and evaluate the tenders according to the criteria established objectively. The scores and the tabulation can then be submitted to higher ranking people, maybe people with reputation for review.
 
The process will avoid complain that the judgement in supporting contract award is made subjectively so as to prevent the outside criticism and interference.
 
It's true that during the selection of the winning contractor, the authority and invited judges have to "play god" to weed up the weaker or the unfit, and the result maybe that the selected aren’t the perfect ones because many factors are involved during tender period and later execution. Especially in Taiwan, public and the industry may not be patient and those who shall be responsible are always susceptible to flak.
 
However, the rules shall be respected and endured some time to see what if it will change the construction industry players and whether or not that the professionals will be allowed to lead the ring.


承包商有不同能力、履歷、對招標工程更應有最佳執行計畫;故除價格外,招標者應確實審核承商投標文件中所提供之工法規畫、過去完工時程、安衛紀錄、經驗、在建工程、現有技術及管理人才等資料。一般國際標審核,機關或其委託工作團隊,必將就投標廠商提供文件所顯示,根據前面所訂標準評分,再送高階或禮聘有名望人士複核,與台灣目前逕請評審委員評審,主、客觀程度有差,是不同之所在。


(4) Defying the International Norms.


Until now, the developed countries especially Europeans and Americans have big say on the codes, standards, disputes solutions and financial arrangement of the international projects. They are the establishment to enjoy privileges and power more than their competency in the industry.

 

If the Asian contractors want to go overseas or their owners ask them to copy the western practice for execution of the project domestically, they may have the problems to follow specifications and conditions strange to them.

 

They won’t have sufficient chances or clout to interpret the contract even try to show they’re familiar with the project and have confidence to complete them as required by the owner following the western philosophy to guarantee the success.

 

Despite they have good engineering knowledge, construction skill and the ability to do the works substantially, they suffer considerable losses in the construction market, international or a transplantation from foreign by a client insist to do so.

 

We believe it's not an intended design promoted by certain races or cultures but it’s difficult, if not impossible, to change the established practice immediately. Because there is humanity element in the capitalist system, that the distrustfulness is used everywhere in the administration of construction contract in the name to safeguard the people’s interest that the concerned parties have to accept.

 

There could be solutions, one is forceful and intransigent, complete "westernization" like the South Koreans indisputably good in construction of high rise building and complicated plant.

 

The other is to change the game rules as Chinese have approached in their Belt and Road Initiatives: loan, specification, contract terms, O&M, arbitration, success or failure, remain to be seen.

 

People have to recognize that many of our practice in construction business, is originally very local, but add up with many western flavors when economy grows. That now we think it’s universal, then you modify them, or they change you.

 

亞洲包商到海外,或本國業主要求其完全依先進國家執行該等工程方式於國內執行,會有對規範感到陌生,履約與工作經驗殊異等困難發生,因而產生虧損,且無法讓業主放心。實際上新興國家承包商,實體工程施作能力已臻水準,只是在文化、語言或管理上無法「西化」,而國際工程之技術、法律與財務制度卻是先至的歐美工程國家,從援助、貸款開始,所訂定,用他們的制度為制度;故至今他們還存有影響力,甚至宰制力。不可否認,在很多情況下,第一世界廠商之實質施工能力與效力已退化,但其已在建制中占一席之地,故在國際工程上仍享若干附加價值,並因此成為新興國家廠商承包國際工程的障礙。要打破這個局面,則需如韓國廠商在高層建築與重工廠房上,相對西方競爭者取得優勢,或如中國「一帶一路」,從出資、技術規範到契約驗收全部按照自己標準,才有取勝機會。


2022年5月11日 星期三

 

Part 7, Advanced Civil Construction, 台科大高等土木施工學教材(2022)

MT KAO (Blog: http://mtkaoforum31.blogspot.tw/)

(mtkaoforum31@gmail.com)

 

1.         Resource Required for Project Implementation 

1)        Man 

a.     Power to drive Individuals and Organizations to achieve Business Goal: 

--Nature of Power 

Man loves power, unlike animal’s content with existence and reproduction; human desires are essentially boundless and incapable of complete satisfaction.

A large proportion of the human race is obliged to work so hard in obtaining necessaries that little energy is left over for other purposes; but those whose livelihood is assured do not cease to be active, they look to power and glory. So young people start to drift in the world will wonder why the needs of obtaining the two become imperative for those have something. 

The easiest way to obtain glory is to obtain power; this is especially the case as regards the men who are active in relation to public events. The desire for glory, prompts the same actions by the desire for power, and the two motives may be regarded as one. 

Power exhibits in many forms, such as wealth, civil authority, and influence on opinion. No one of these can be regarded as subordinate to any other, and there is no one form from which the others are derivative. 

(人異於動物之處,在滿足溫飽與繁殖基本需求後,仍渴求光榮與權力。其形式可以為財富、公權力或以意見影響他人。)

 -Organization 

Among the phenomena featuring construction industry, "Man" is most relevant.  Because people can't be alone to work out big and complicated structure and buildings, they have to be molded into "organizations", to synchronize different expertise and sized up strength, then are capable of serving the society as a meaningful member of construction industry. 

To make them functional and contributive, organizations need to be given goals, compatible resource, and rules for participants accepting rewards and punishments as inducements. So, there must be leader, hierarchy, and systems in an organization; it means the engineers won't be immune from influence of power maneuver, which an innocent engineering debutant may hesitate to touch. 

營建產業中,人的因素最重要;因需集合眾力與不同專業建構組織,才能完成大工程。既有組織,就要有工作目標,給予相稱資源,工作規律,因此需領導、科層級職與制度。因此與權力運作發生關係。 

-Leaders 

However, in an organization where technology and experience are regarded as highly important, naked power manifested on the leader assigned not with assent of the members but through investment, heritance or tradition will have to share power with doyens of superior skill and knowledge. It's the same that commercial people will get their part of power apportioning when profitability is major concern. 

When the organizations become big and complicated, power from creeds and over opinions of public will be another origin. As a result, the leaders or candidates for them will be restrained for the power, and the organizations' behavior will have to be institutionalized. 

So, the entire system become more business-oriented at least in this part of capitalist world because we are sure that any organization, be public or private, shall perform according to the principle of utilitarianism that worth taxpayer, shareholders or expert's trust. 

工程公司領袖可因繼承或政治指派而來,但權力會因技術或業務等考量而重新分配。故工程公司需遵守市場功利原則才能生存。 

-Power Distance 

Although it takes on different guises from person to person, there's possibility that the leaders may pursue and profit from enacting their own agenda using their naked and traditional power, and it won't be conflicting that the follow employees who gains nothing will be cooperative as they seem to gain vicariously from the superficial achievements of the leaders. 

It's fact that "genuinely cooperative enterprise" often appeared in Asian countries where "power distance" can be big between each layer of management and the young startups are always taught only to listen and learn. But the deliberation of power in an engineering organization will affect its benefit, loss, even survival. On the other hand, individuals always humbly don't like to touch non-technical issues and think by so they can be shielded from power manipulation of imperious person. 

So, people shall care about the leadership and history of organizations he wants to join and make judgement whether or not it's an organization worth fighting with.  

And it has to be noted, as organizations differ in size and type, common to them all is the tendency for inequality of power to increase as membership increases. It's a confusion to young people who may have justice and fraternity in mind and consider big company management rogue.

The general effect of an organization, is either to increase the well-being of persons, or to aid the survival of the organization itself, apart from those resulting from governmental self-preservation. 

公司非個人,需有不同面相;領導與基層之間權力距離應縮短,專斷與冷漠對公司發展都不好。 

b.     Managerial cadre: 

- Inflated Titles for Professionals 

A successful engineering company requires good balance between managers, professionals and occupational. But the balance could only be achieved when number and quality of the "man" employed matched operational requirement. 

Among all, loyalties to the company or the boss personally in an industry where small entrepreneurs are everywhere, are most important. It means steady employment that the "man" can be recruited and assigned to work places for required period under reasonable conditions. Qualification to fit the jobs is basic, and more than that, the hired must be trusted for many inter-person deeds taking places every day in construction industry. 

In Taiwan, there're 2,845 Class A Contractors, 1243 Class B Contractors, 7,057 Class C Contractors, and 547 Specialty Contractors toward the end of 2019. Also not a smaller number of Consulting Firms, Architects and independent PE Offices have been registered. That it means thousands post of which qualification levels equal to general managers, managers and senior engineers are wanted in the industry. The side effects under the circumstance can be that the construction companies or consultants cannot hire managers or engineers experienced enough for their positions; and people also don't have opportunities to learn management or technical skills in their career. 

台灣超過一萬家工程公司,就有超過這些數字數倍的總經理、副總、部門經理職缺,工程師如看重職銜甚於專業學習,結果只是事浮於人,或專業無法提升? 

-Recruitment 

Under the circumstance, market fragmentation is ensured as many small companies or institutions in the industry struggle for survival. But people still cherish their titles such as vice presidents or directors of the companies even the jobs require them to do works of more occupational content than professional ones. 

The situation further worsens when impatient authority tried to introduce project management system supposed compatible with international practice. The problem is unless there is an overhaul in construction related companies to stop the vicious cycle of professionalism tumbling, make it plain, the decimation of underperformed companies following the restructure of enduring ones should be required first to transform the disciplines, grade, and initiative of engineers, and then proceed to neat, clean and efficient 21st century construction 

台灣營建業徵人遭遇困難,此又因主管機關盼能與國際同步,實施先進營建管理制度,作更大程度專業分工,需要大量專才出現了更大問題。 

-Professional and Occupational 

People working in the industry understand the difference between Professional and Occupational is whether or not they’ll use brain all the time. However, they must be aware a professional can easily and unconsciously become an occupational. The situation may include they practicing routine and unchallenged work too long, or simply losing the brain power to reason and to judge. 

Always the changes in the market or industry will bring in the impact, that people have to wary if their income are hardly raised or the employers explicitly ask for more training and test for the same job they’ve carried out. 

c.     Project-based or Department-oriented(functional) Management: 

- Diploma Over-Trump Proficiency

Conventionally, general public always considers diploma is equal to people's ability and it compels the authority to accept the idea that expertise can be tested through examination. So, for convenience the project owner and the party responsible for supervision wouldn’t look into the true curriculum of job candidate. The outcome that bureaucrats waive their power to judge the adequacy of proposed project staff, is that they have to use all the tools and weapon to safeguard the quality and progress of the works, but in vain. 

傳統觀念將學歷等同能力,並認為專業可由考試檢測出來;在此觀念下,主管機關放棄了依實務來判斷公共工程派任的專業人員否合格的權力,退守到以工進及成本等契約最後目標,作為管理包商手段,等於是捨本求末,難能成功。 

-Company’s Shrived HQ 

Only a few companies in Taiwan have fortune to expand their organization into big, and sophisticated matrix structure, in which both project-based and functional department-oriented management co-existed and support each other. 

As we’ve shown above, many entrepreneur-led companies with limited business volume have to adopt project-based management, of which, the practice is to assign people to site offices meeting minimum of client's requirement. The project offices are presumed to gain technical and management backup from knowledgeable engineers in each functional department, however, it couldn't be done as fierce competition to get the tender has hallowed head offices, we saw the veterans disappeared over time. 

Consequently, people are reduced only to work on projects of which the design and construction are general and routine because they don't hold engineers capable of developing know-hows of projects. But in reality, the companies have to establish for the project something similar to matrix organization to furnish the required support provided by both project-base and functional department-oriented system. 

台灣工程業除少數外,無法承接足夠業務,合理成長,故只能採專案管理方式,要求工地在一定金額內自給自足。工地在專業上無法期待支援,工程師亦無機會在功能性部門學習、成長;應有的可以整合計畫部門與功能性部門的矩陣式組織就不會存在了。

d.     Personal and organizational behaviors: 

- Company Culture related to Size

 Personal behaviors are different from person to person, also in different time for the same person. When an organization is formed, it behaves as a person but like persons it will have different faces overtime. It depends on the leaders very much; especially the way he handles coordination and communication.

Organization mainly consist of engineers and ruled by them can be stiff and fastidious in giving orders and executing them. The reason and the result maybe it need to avoid mistakes and at the same time push things forward. But people with more liberal or creative thought may not appreciate and can be shut put; not good to business development and technological innovation. To mitigate that, a motley style of coordination and communication in a big company is highly valued.

組織係由個人組成,會有多個面相;眾人工作成效能否加成,領導負責溝通協調,最為關鍵。工程師不允許發生錯誤,在工作上要求嚴謹,故由其擔任首長、主管的公司會有僵化情形;有創見人才不一定能見容。故組織龐大之公司更應注意溝通協調。 

- High and Low Context Cultures 

When organization is small, cultures can be defined as "high context”, more inclined toward relational and collectivist. Message can be spread effectively aiding by gestures, relations, body language, verbal messages, or non-verbal messages between individuals.

But when organization grow big, communication shall be more explicit, direct, and elaborate; because under the circumstance the individuals are not expected to have knowledge of each other's histories or background, and communication can't be shaped by long-standing relationships between speakers, they depend more on the words being spoken rather than on the interpretation of more subtle or unspoken cues. In such case, the organizations need low context culture.

"High" and "low" context cultures typically refer to language groups, nationalities, or regional communities. However, they have also been applied to corporations, professions and other cultural groups. Though not all individuals in a culture can be defined by cultural stereotypes, it can roughly classify: 

* When we're in elementary school, classmates and teacher fixed in the same classroom all day will know more each other, it's high context; and in university, people come and go, with professors and classmates the communication is made in lower context. 

* In smallest companies, boss know every employee, give orders and evaluate performance themselves, it's high context; in big companies, departments and levels are many, between them the communication needs to be made in meetings with minutes or written mails, power must be delegated and the bosses reduced to figurehead. 

* The lawyers and accountants talk and writes to identify the truth must be precise in words and numbers, they're of the lower context; the engineers and businessman next, while the farmers deal with the same lands and climates for life can be higher context. 

* In nations or societies where harmony and the well-being of the group is preferred over individual achievement, higher context cultures can be more prevailing in Asian countries, that many of them subsistent on peasantry economy historically. While European and North American countries long developed their industry, the culture can be lower context. 

People grow up in different context of culture will have distinct response toward the organization which he is hired; however, he can judge how or whether he has to change himself in behavior if he knows more about the cultural group the organization belong to; people will have flexibility for change when he is young. 

在企業作事,須了解高低情境文化之不同與所造成影響。在較為固定經濟與社會體制下,人們不需要用精確語言、文字溝通,甚至以粗略言談加上手勢、表情即可完成意思之表述,此為高情境文化或社會;反之為低情境。營建業隨時代推移,注重追溯與證據,與傳統相反。大公司或組織之管理與運作,更須避免猜度,工程師自初學即應了解情境高低與溝通協調之關係。 

e.     Labor laws, quality, incentives, unions  

- Labor and Taxation Laws in Taiwan 

Working at site as construction people or supervisors will have to follow the weather instead of the calendar for their agenda. There's considerable improvement for employees on the aspect as labor law and regulation interfere; but the employer especially the big companies may not be able to observe to the law completely. It's also one of the reasons that sub-contractors and work gangs are introduced to the project for execution as they may be more "flexible' to follow the law. 

More than law abiding for overtime assignment, smaller company in Taiwan can pay corporation tax in deemed amount in exchange of lax scrutiny into their books. It means sometimes they can neglect or under report their employees' personal tax, retire fund or health care premium. And beyond monetary obligation evaded, they can be freer to recruit employees especially for blue collar people that many of them illegal foreign labors. 

A well-organized company in construction industry will consider laws amended in favor of employees are draconian, and tend to be meticulous toward recruitment even for white collar professionals. So, when construction or design companies have to rely on dispatched people to fulfill minimum contract requirement, they actually leave the responsibility to lay off people to manpower dispatch agencies; which is big departure to the professionalism. 

現場工作進度會受天候影響,須完全負責之承包商人員之工作時間就無法有固定上班或休假時間。但大公司須遵守勞動法令又要依約完成工作,稅務上亦有同樣考量,故常發包給較有彈性之小公司。此都不甚有利於專業工程師之業界發展。

 - Taiwan’s Scrupulous Professionals 

in Taiwan, professionals also have their problem to learn things needed to develop their expertise. People are lack of patience in pursuance of knowledge and expertise for professionalism. They’re easy to accept jobs satisfying their temporary quest of titles and income and thus demand conditions more related to income, welfare and places of their work. Some of them may need to share with spouse for family chores and tend to work on regular hours. 

We learn that the professionals are working with their brain and are hardly quit the job for entire 24 hours a day. It means if they can cut clean with the work after office hour, they’re not better than any occupational for engineering solution at all. 

There could be a compromise likely to be reached with an irresponsible employer to sacrifice the work quality, but, and it opens the chance for those don’t have formal engineering background to fill the vacancy; thus, a degradation of professionalism. 

Yes, it’s an industry where toil and sweat sometimes still overwhelm the brain leaving rooms for those who don’t embrace professionalism. But the projects continue to demand certificated and licensed engineers, then people who have received engineering education may have potential and chances to claim back their dominance in the realm

綜上,工程師容易遷就短線的較高職銜與收入,或想留在都會區等而放棄了技術上學習、上達的機會,短期內非工程專業者或有填補真空的機會。但台灣的法治環境較佳,加上時間和耐性,專業工程師有機會在營建界當家作主。

 

2022年5月1日 星期日

 Part 6, Advanced Civil Construction, 台科大高等土木施工學教材(2022) 

MT KAO (Blog: http://mtkaoforum31.blogspot.tw/)

(mtkaoforum31@gmail.com)


3. Remuneration, Feeling of Fulfillment, and Chances of Promotion in Different Entities


1) Academy: 


a. Nationalization and bureaucratization of educational institution.


-  In medieval Europe, universities meant a place where students from everywhere were welcomed. They were taught the arts and had at least one of the higher faculties (theology, law or medicine), by those with a master's degree. So, the term was studium generale as the aim was to provide students and the general public academic foundations in line with the humanistic roots.


- And the changes begun from Germany in 19th century, the academic study was considered more essential than to disseminate the knowledge to students and the general public as Von Homboldt maintained in his Berlin University. 


The capitalist American went farther to introduce the ideas for universities and the colleges to become“technology research center” either by accepting chunky donation from privates or obtain funds in collaboration with big companies for programs. As the result, the “university” actually is “multiversity” and become kind of “knowledge industry” entice the talents and transform them to be “useful” in the market.


- As it evolves, there’re many academic communities of different scientific subjects established in the universities. The institutes have to achieve the goal assigned to them in the research program and so require the combined effort of various faculty members for minimal multiplicity. And it means the organizations have to be sizable to include scholars of different disciplines; specialists, technicians, and in some cases, the managers.


And because only the government can pay the money to sustain an organization of meaningful capacity, the nationalization and bureaucratization of the university is unavoidable. Then the autonomy of faculty is gone that the professors has to respect the imposed hierarchy, follow the government procurement law, honor the quantified evaluation system. And it means, the young men decide to work in the academy for life needs to know everything about scholar’s recruitment, pay, and promotion as many of the civil servants do.


There can be countries with thrive industries and successful businessmen granting huge sums of money to the university. For all their best intension or pragmatism to inspirit innovation, the receiving parties may proceed to employ needed people for the advance study programs not related to teaching and study. In addition to the salaries and bonus given to the scholars and specialist, tools, software and apparatus required to advance the innovation can be paid, thus facilitate the general study as well. 


Therefore, the conventional boundary between the ivory tower and the outside world is blurred. Lucky or not, the campus grows and aggrandized; but it looks as if it were a technical center of big company, buoyed, motived and boosted by the same market force plumped the industry.

 

- Cambridge and Oxford could be the last to insist its tradition that the university should bend on the “liberal education” to nurture the gentlemen. But in 1956, the UK government astonished that the country lagged much behind the US and Soviet Union in technology and science; had to issue a whitepaper for higher education mainly to accept the promotion of Colleges of Advanced Technology (CATS) to university level. 


The UK faculty leaders shared the government’s view realizing the fact there should be scientific culture in addition to the humanity culture, and the “Argument of Two Cultures” had to come to a hold. 


- In certain countries the university can be supported by charities, donation and wealthy alumni just like the universities and graduate schools in the American Ivy Leagues so as to be free from the government interference. 


b. Fate, connections, and politic may play part in the assignment and promotion of faculty positions.


- In theory, the assignment and promotion in the public faculty will be fair because the qualification set for the contested is stringent and people responsible to smack the decision are supposed wise and objective in such an independent organization. But in practice, the odd is high that the un-qualified may win out as they know how to use the connection and politic skillfully. So, for those who expect the meritocracy will prevail in keep the academic body lean and competent can be disappointed.


The other side of the coin is when universities are funded by public money the regulations for personnel management are rigid, and less influenced by the powerful or the unprincipled. 


- Sometimes, the faculty may have their unique requirement for particular topics for researches, they may recruit scholars who would provide talent at that special moment and then they may start academic career; it’s the fate. The opposite also is true when an eligible can’t be picked over years just because lack of luck.


c. Inspiration, heart and soul are still required in developing scientific and engineering theories.


- People get fame in academic career may claim later that there’s no coincidence in his success and tell the young man to work hard because scientific and engineering theories can only be accomplished through endeavor. It’s true but not necessarily that the hard work will invite the success. Young starters have to learn that the aspiration is required in the process to initiate an idea, fill the void and perfect the defect. 


- in develop some theory in their career, often the people will place their attention more on time and effort they’ve spent over the issues and await the aspiration come to add favors on the plain calculation. It’s not realistic and people has to have heart and soul if they want to do scientific study. 


- People who are mediocratic actually shall avoid to pursue the academic achievement. 


d. Limited monetary remuneration augmented with infrequent plaudits complete full reward scheme of scholars.


- Monetary remuneration is limited for people working in academic. There may be something in compensation for the low income, that is the feeling of fulfillment and achievement. 


A real scholar will feel happy when he discovers or believes that he will be able to offer next generation people a branch of knowledge, though may not be perfect or permanent, even the plaudit is short and rare.


- However, the modern university may change. As we said, it will change to “knowledge industry” in collaboration with companies thirsty to find collaborators for technology improvement. We’ve witnessed big business pour in chunk of money to finance faculty in an unprecedent manner. 


The law also modified to allow people other than pure wonks join the faculty to conduct researches; and the pay is not subject to any limitation. Bonus and other incentives are offered to the people who’re supposed to be acclaimed for their virtue.   


2) Professional entities such as architects and consulting firms


a. The professionals don't produce, manufacture or build, they offer design report and solutions based on expertise that can hardly be quantified; so, they receive bonus and prize based on subjective review in addition to the fixed salary.


People who’re admitted to big architect and consulting firms are expected to listen to the orders and to begin as a simple part of complicated machine. Remuneration wouldn’t be high as the company consider you gain more in learning as new comer.


Promotion, or work adjusted for next stage seem to be taken grant; but mainly depend on your altitude. 


b. Managers of architects and consulting firms are critical to create a sound work environment for efficiency, recruit people of high talent, take the lead in competition, recognize and reward those who work hard with decent pay, and find the new customers and win their trust; so, they deserve high income.


Even though the market is not small in some of the countries, the architects and consulting firms would have their fix clients. The relationship cultivated are between, in most of the cases, the institutions and not the individuals. It’s very apparent in Taiwan, and the individuals have to be careful in asserting their business credit.

 

c. As a trend and also out of necessity, capital gains such as profit, dividend, interest, rent and royalty are offered to the employees in the form of company stock, partnership, or special agreement.


When the majority of shares held in government or big organization, the persons in custody tend to be more conservative and the not the persons running the company lose an effective tool to manage the company. It’s the situation for the two biggest civil engineering consultants in Taiwan. 


d. The rates and prices of consultancy contracts are low by international standard, so that the professional’s pay is restrained in Taiwan. 


The professionals, especially those in the consultant firms, have to work long time to get enough money compared to the engineers working in the other countries. The difference in annual remuneration between the senior and junior engineers are not so much and it decreases the incentives of the employees. The reasons are again, partly due to the government’ holding of the shares for big consulting company. The small, private and localized consultant firms always submitting low price is also the reason that the professionals in Taiwan don’t have good income as their foreign counterpart.  


The civil engineering consultants always require top talents, but, many of them ceased to work hard for the nature of the company and the difficulties to draw a smooth and reasonable clear path; many of them are said to have early retirement. Recently, it’s improves at least for the employees as demand is increased.


3) Construction firms


a. Contractors command more resources than any other players in the industry and the pay difference among their staffs is significant and decided by project profit and loss.


For the same project, different managers will significantly make the resulted profitability completely different. Therefore, the bosses will carefully choose the manager or won’t delegate any power to the under in the case of small company. And for big project, it requires good manager(s) and qualified staff to work around the clock. There’s nothing but to offer strong incentives as the boss is concerned. 


And it means, a devoted and smart employee will be able to distinguish himself in the construction firms. 


b. In Taiwan, the owners prefer low cost and hasten progress. So always construction companies are put under extreme pressure to meet contractual requirement, and only staff (leading by a relentless boss) can withstand the grinding work condition will get higher pay and the employment, not much to do with their proficiency, not mentioning feeling of achievement.


c. Reformation that allow the constructor to do the works in design and build has been introduced to the market, and now that the industry is less fragmented so the construction firms can grow and allow the professionals either technical or managerial developing their skill and climbing the company ladder. 


d. Specialty contactors if have more control on expertise shall be more dominant as the nature of the works now are more than simple concrete pouring and rebar binding when economy evolved and the project more complicated.


4) Government Employees 


a. In Taiwan and many Asian countries, the government employees are prestigious and respected despite its low salary and limited power. The reasons may be the employment is permanent and the work isn’t manual. In the case of civil engineering, the mandarins are responsible to certify the progress in every stage and accept the completed stuff of the project, highly influential to the public works and the contractors. So, can be the top choice of graduates.


b. But as the economy grows the government enact many laws and regulations, which aren’t flexible in nature for implementation but the civil servants need to follow. In addition, the politicians, media and public frequently overrule the professed opinion; making young engineer uncomfortable and hesitate to go after the government posts. 


c. At the time when resources were scarce, only the government would be affordable to import construction technologies and appeal to the talents to work for big projects. It’s attractive for engineers. Now that working for private companies could get even better access for modern technology under more discerning evaluation. The incentives for young talents to work for government are drastically reduced.


5) Bosses or self-employed


a. In a market-oriented economy, the individuals are free to exercise will and power in their own enterprise plus that the sub-let system in Taiwan will allow new comers to deliver the works easy; then the threshold to start construction business looks low. Many young people thus select to become entrepreneurs before they can learn something as other’s employees.  


b. A contractor needs capital, follow engineers, business connections, access to resources required for execution, and above all a mentality to lead the teammates you want to summon for successful performance; therefore, it requires years of experience. But the rigor and aggressiveness to found an enterprise will only attached to a young brain, then you’ve to determine whether to be boss or self-employed at early stage of your life.


c. However, construction people often risked to become accomplices of authority, super or sub tier contractors stealing public money. The temptation are overwhelming: providing bad material, not build according to the drawing, faulting the contracts. The bosses always excuse themselves for the need of survival. But actually, they like to enjoy lucrative contracts and believe they’re well protected. But in the long run the systematic fraud could be exposed and the professionals forsaking ethic principles would be sacrificed. 

Unlike many developing worlds, Taiwan escaped endemic corruption during and after the days massive infrastructure projects are under construction. If you want to be a boss in Taiwan, the risk is smaller.